Showing posts with label Construction. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Construction. Show all posts

Thursday, January 12, 2017

What is Traffic Impact Assessment - TIA

What is Traffic Impact Assessment (TIA) ?

TIA is a study/tool/mechanism to evaluate the transportation and traffic impact of a proposed land development project. It identifies the need for any mitigation measures for a transportation system to reduce congestion, maintain and improve safety. It provide the authorities/planners/developers a framework in making critical land use and site planning decisions regarding traffic and transportation issues.

Requirement for Traffic Impact Assessment (TIA) ?

For any land development projects that is expected to generate 100 or more peak hour vehicles, or when a project might impact an already congested or high accident area, or when specific site access and safety issues are of concern.

Aim of Traffic Impact Assessment (TIA)

To minimize traffic congestion and all related ills, in order to achieve a sustainable development

Importance and Significance of Traffic Impact Assessment (TIA) ?
  • Legislative: mandatory for most land development especially in urban areas
  • Micro level transportation planning that warrant analysis to gauge the impact of future developments on the surrounding road networks
  • Done at the earliest planning stages of a project would assists in preparation of a more responsive and cost-effective site plan.

Tuesday, January 10, 2017

Applications of traffic volume studies

Applications of traffic volume studies

  • Planning, traffic operation and control of existing facilities and also for planning and designing new facilities,
  • Classified volume is used for structural design of pavement, geometric design and computing road user capacity,
  • Volume distribution is used in planning one-way street and regulatory measures,
  • Turning movement is used in the design of intersection, signal timing etc
  • Pedestrian volume used for planning pedestrian facilities, sidewalk, crosswalk
  • Traffic pattern and trend are used as measure for facilities improvement and priority of projects.

Sunday, January 8, 2017

Preparation of earthwork report and detail drawings

Preparation of earthwork report and detail drawings
  • Earthwork layout plan – should include existing level, proposed level, orientation of the building, location of silt trap, location of wash trough, total cut & fill, temporary earth drain system, proposed slope, existing slope, etc.
  • Cross section of earthwork- show the varies of existing & proposed platform level
  • Silt trap design & detail - for temporary earth drain
  • Wash trough detail – to wash dump truck tire before move in & out to make sure public road is always clean.
  • Calculation of cut & fill – to show whether the project have to import earth or export earth, use Cross Section Method or Contour Method or Grid method to calculate cut & fill.
  • Earthwork specification – requirements to be followed during construction
  • Piling specification – requirements for piling machine to be used during piling work, i.e, hydraulic hammer, diesel hammer, injection pile, etc, usually to avoid noisy during piling. 

Friday, January 6, 2017

Classification of Pile based on Methods of Installation

Classification of Pile based on Methods of Installation

Classification of Pile based on Methods of Installation

Classification of pile based on methods of installation can be described in several items which is ;

Driven Piles
a) Timber (round or square section)
b) Precast concrete (solid or hollow section)
c) Prestressed concrete (solid or hollow section)
d) Steel H-section, box and tube

Driven and cast-in-place piles
a) Withdrawable steel drive tube, end closed by concrete plug
b) Withdrawable steel drive tube, end closed by detachable point
c) Steel shells driven by withdrawable mandrel or drive tube
d) Precast concrete shells driven by withdrawable mandrel

Bored Piles
a) Continuous bored
b) Cable percussion drilling
c) Augered
d) Large diameter under-reamed
e) Types incorporating pre-cast concrete units
f) Drilled in tubes

Composite Piles

Thursday, January 5, 2017

General Attributes of Safe Road

Road Design for Safety
General Attributes of Safe Road
The operation of roads involves the interaction of three key elements that are driver, vehicle and the environment.Physical shape of road depends very much on the attributes of the driver and the vehicle and their interaction in a dynamic sense. Designing safe and efficient road requires a basic understanding of certain human factors, vehicle characteristics and their interaction with the roads and its environment.
Road Design for Safety
Human factors include;

  • Vision
  • Information needs
  • Information processing

Vehicle characteristics such as ;

  • Visibility (for the driver-eye height and blind spot)
  • Braking characteristics
  • Manoeuvrability
  • Cornering

What is General Attributes of Safe Road ?


General Attributes of Safe Road
  1. Standards of horizontal and vertical alignment which are appropriate to the environment,
  2. Road cross-section with appropriate lane and shoulder provisions, catering for the various traffic volume,
  3. Access control consistent with the function of the road in the overall road network,
  4. Clearly visible and uncomplicated intersection with appropriate traffic control providing safe movement for all road user groups
  5. Well thought out traffic signing with clear advice, positive warning, unambiguous directional information,
  6. Adequate and consistent delineation of the roadway,
  7. High standard of skid resistance pavement with good drainage,
  8. Appropriate street lighting
  9. Overall traffic management which properly considers the needs of all road users.

Tuesday, January 3, 2017

Pile Driving Equipment

Pile Driving Equipment

Pile Driving Equipment

The main components of pile driving equipment essentially consist of :-

  1. Pile frames
  2. Piling winches
  3. Hanging leaders
  4. Hammer guides
  5. Piling hammers
  6. Helmet, driving cap, dolly & packing

Monday, January 2, 2017

Retaining Wall Design Consideration and Major Types of Retaining Walls

Retaining Wall Design Consideration

Basic function of retaining wall is to retain soil at a slope which is greater than it would naturally assume, usually at a vertical or near vertical position. Retaining walls have primary function of retaining soils at an angle in excess of the soil’s nature angle of repose.
Retaining Wall Design Consideration Major Types of Retaining Walls
Walls within the design height range are designed to provide the necessary resistance by either their own mass or by the principles of leverage. During design stage, engineer must consider several important point which is vital and need to take account for such as ;

1. Overturning of the wall shall not occur
2. Forward sliding shall not occur
3. Materials to be used should be suitable and subject to availability
4. The subsoil will not overloaded
5. Nature and characteristics of the subsoil to be observed and examined very well
6. Height of water table. The presence of water can create hydrostatic pressure, affect bearing capacity of the subsoil together with its shear strength, reduce the frictional resistance between the underside of the foundation
7. Type of wall to be construct.

Major Types of Retaining Walls 

a) Mass retaining walls

Sometimes called gravity walls and rely upon their own mass together with the friction on the underside of the base to overcome the tendency to slide or overturn. Generally only economic up to 1.8 m. Mass walls can be constructed of semi-engineering quality bricks bedded in a 1:3 cement mortar or of mass concrete. Natural stone is suitable for small walls up to 1m high but generally it is used as a facing material for walls over 1 m

b) Cantilever walls

Usually of reinforced concrete and work on the principle of leverage where the stem is designed as a cantilever fixed at the base and the base is designed as a cantilever fixed at the stem. Economic height range of 1.2 m to 6 m using pre-stressing techniques. Any durable facing material can be applied to the surface to improve appearance of the wall

c) Counterfort retaining walls

Can be constructed of reinforced or prestressed concrete.Suitable for over 4.5 m.Triangular beams placed at suitable centres behind the stem and above the base to enable the stem and base to act as slab spanning horizontally over or under the counterforts

d) Precast concrete retaining walls

Manufactured from high-grade pre cast concrete on the cantilever principle.Can be erected on a foundation as permanent retaining wall or be free standing to act as dividing wall between heaped materials which it can increase three times the storage volume for any given area. Other advantages which is reduction in time by eliminating curing period, cost of formwork, time to erect and dismantle the temporary forms. Lifting holes are provided which can be utilized for fixing if required

e) Precast concrete crib-retaining walls


Designed on the principle of mass retaining walls.A system of pre cast concrete or treated timber components comprising headers and stretchers which interlock to form a 3 dimensional framework or crib of pre cast concrete timber units within which soil is retained. Constructed with a face batter between 1:6 and 1:8. Subsoil drainage is not required since the open face provides adequate drainage.

Saturday, December 31, 2016

Usage and Method Selection of Pile

USAGE AND SELECTION OF PILE

Whenever the soil stratum immediately below the foundation is unable to sustain loads imposed on it by the superstructure, piles are utilised to transmit the structural loads into the ground without risk to shear failure or excessive settlement. Almost all piles used receive support from both end bearing and shaft resistance.

USAGE AND SELECTION OF PILE


1. To carry the superstructure loads into or through a soil stratum. Both vertical and lateral loads may be involved.

2. To resist uplift, or overturning, forces as for basement mats below the water table or tosupport tower legs subjected to overturning.

3. To compact loose , cohesionless deposits through a combination of pile volume displacement and driving vibrations. These piles may later be pulled.

4. To control settlement when spread footings or a mat is on a marginal soil or is underlain by a highly compressible stratum.

5. To stiffen the soil beneath machine foundations to control both amplitudes of vibration and the natural frequency of the system

6. As an additional safety factor beneath bridge abutments and/or piers, particularly if scour is a potential problem.

Factors affecting pile selection

The choice of piles to be used for a particular project would certainly depends on the four main factors. The main factors which normally controls the selection which will be explained in next post are :-

a) Location and type of structure
b) Ground conditions
c) Durability
d) Overall cost of pile.

Thursday, December 29, 2016

Pre-cast Concrete Crib-Retaining Walls

What is Pre-cast Concrete Crib-Retaining Walls ?

Pre-cast Concrete Crib-Retaining Walls

Introduction of Precast concrete crib retaining wall
  • Designed on the principle of mass retaining walls
  • A system of pre cast concrete or treated timber components comprising headers and stretchers which interlock to form a 3 dimensional framework or crib of pre cast concrete timber units within which soil is retained
  • Constructed with a face batter between 1:6 and 1:8
  • Subsoil drainage is not required since the open face provides adequate drainage.
Concrete crib walls are gravity retaining walls, constructed from interlocking, precast, concrete components. They are filled with free draining material and earth backfill to eliminate the hazards of hydrostatic pressure building up behind the wall.

Crib walls are low cost, of open web construction, and can be quickly and inexpensively erected. They can be used almost anywhere a retaining wall is needed – including driveways, building sites, and garden areas.

Advantages of Precast concrete crib retaining wall

Ease of construction
Concrete crib walls do not require skilled labour and are easily and quickly erected. Components can easily be handled by two people, and there are no costly foundations involved.

Stability, strength and safety
The open web construction and use of free draining material eliminates two common causes of failure in retaining walls — namely build up of hydrostatic pressure and the destructive pressure of tree root systems. The high quality precast concrete components provide for long-term durability and will not rot or warp.

Low cost
Our crib walls are specifically designed to allow speed and ease of construction for minimum cost and require little or no maintenance. The standard, quality components allow for the most economical solutions for various wall heights.

Aesthetics
A Crib wall can be planted with flowers, shrubs, or creepers, using the spaces in the face of the wall. This allows the wall to blend in with any existing or proposed environment.

Adaptability
Crib walls are incredibly flexible and can easily be constructed to follow gentle curves, slopes, and undulating terrain. They are also easily laid around corners.What’s more, the ability to dismantle and re-erect components quickly and easily as required means our walls may form temporary or permanent structures as the need dictates.

Where construction must be carried out in stages — due to finance, weather or other factors — our walls are ideal as there is no permanent connection between components, allowing sections of wall to be continued when and where required.

Design
Our concrete crib walls are designed as gravity retaining walls, using a system of four header sizes. Combinations of header sizes can be used for different wall heights. Walls up to 20m in height can be catered for with these systems.

Tuesday, December 27, 2016

Densities of Construction Material

Densities of Construction Material

Material density, more often referred to simply as density, is a quantitative expression of the amount of mass contained per unit volume . The standard unit is the kilogram per meter cubed (kg/m 3 or kg. m -3 ). Density is sometimes expressed in grams per centimeter cubed (g/cm 3 or gm.)

Densities of Construction Material

As 1000kg of pure water = 1 cubic metre, those materials under 1000kg/cu.m will float; more dense will sink ie. those materials with a specific gravity more than 1. Pure water was chosen as the 'base line' for specific gravity and given the value of 1. The specific gravity of all other materials are compared to water as a fraction heavier or lighter density.

MATERIAL
lbs/cu.ftkg/meter.cu
Alfalfa, ground16256
Alum, lumpy55881
Alum, pulverized47753
Alumina60961
Aluminum, oxide951522
Ammonia gas0.0480.77
Ammonium Nitrate46730
Ammonium Sulphate - dry711130
Ammonium Sulphate - wet811290
Andesite, solid1732771
Antimony, cast4186696
Apples40641
Arsenic3545671
Asbestos - shredded20320- 400
Asbestos rock1001600
Ashes - wet46730- 890
Ashes - dry36570- 650
Asphalt, crushed45721
Babbitt4547272
Bagasse7120
Bakelite, solid851362
Baking powder45721
Barium2363780
Bark, wood refuse15240
Barley38609
Barite, crushed1802883
Basalt, broken1221954
Basalt, solid1883011
Bauxite, crushed801281
Beans, castor36577
Beans, cocoa37593
Beans, navy50801
Beans, soy45721
Beeswax60961
Beets45721
Bentonite37593
Bicarbonate of soda43689
Bismuth6119787
Bones, pulverized55881
Borax, fine53849
Bran16256
Brewers grain27432
Brick, common red1201922
Brick, fire clay1502403
Brick, silica1282050
Brick, chrome1752803
Brick, magnesia1602563
Buckwheat41657
Butter54865
Cadmium5408650
Calcium carbide751201
Caliche901442
Carbon, solid1342146
Carbon, powdered580
Carbon dioxide0.1241.98
Carbon monoxide0.0781.25
Cardboard43689
Cement - clinker811290-1540
Cement, Portland941506
Cement, mortar1352162
Cement, slurry901442
Chalk, solid1562499
Chalk, lumpy901442
Chalk, fine701121
Charcoal13208
Chloroform951522
Chocolate, powder40641
Chromic acid, flake751201
Chromium4286856
Chromium ore1352162
Cinders, furnace57913
Cinders, Coal, ash40641
Clay, dry excavated681089
Clay, wet excavated1141826
Clay, dry lump671073
Clay, fire851362
Clay, wet lump1001602
Clay, compacted1091746
Clover seed48769
Coal, Anthracite, solid941506
Coal, Anthracite, broken691105
Coal, Bituminous, solid841346
Coal, Bituminous, broken52833
Cobaltite ( cobolt ore )3936295
Coconut, meal32513
Coconut, shredded22352
Coffee, fresh beans35561
Coffee, roast beans27432
Coke36-41570- 650
Concrete, Asphalt1402243
Concrete, Gravel1502403
Concrete, Limestone with Portland1482371
Copper ore121-1621940-2590
Copper sulfate, ground2253604
Copra, medium size33529
Copra, meal, ground40641
Copra, expeller cake ground32513
Copra, expeller cake chopped29465
Cork, solid15240
Cork, ground10160
Corn, on the cob45721
Corn, shelled45721
Corn, grits42673
Cottonseed, dry, de-linted35561
Cottonseed, dry, not de-linted20320
Cottonseed, cake, lumpy42673
Cottonseed, hulls12192
Cottonseed, meal37593
Cottonseed, meats40641
Cottonwood26416
Cryolite1001602
Cullet1001602
Culm47753
Dolomite, solid1812899
Dolomite, pulverized46737
Dolomite, lumpy951522
Earth, loam, dry, excavated781249
Earth, moist, excavated901442
Earth, wet, excavated1001602
Earth, dense1252002
Earth, soft loose mud1081730
Earth, packed951522
Earth, Fullers, raw42673
Emery2504005
Ether46737
Feldspar, solid1602563
Feldspar, pulverized771233
Fertilizer, acid phosphate60961
Fish, scrap45721
Fish, meal37593
Flaxseed, whole45721
Flint - silica871390
Flour, wheat37593
Flue dust91-1261450-2020
Fluorspar, solid2003204
Fluorspar, lumps1001602
Fluorspar, pulverized901442
Fullers Earth - raw or burnt36-46570- 730
Galena ( lead ore )462-4747400 - 7600
Garbage, household rubbish30481
Glass - broken or cullet81-1211290-1940
Glass, window1612579
Glue, animal, flaked35561
Glue, vegetable, powdered40641
Gluten, meal39625
Gneiss, bed in place1792867
Gneiss, broken1161858
Granite, solid1682691
Granite, broken1031650
Graphite, flake40641
Grain - Maize47760
Grain - Barley37600
Grain - Millet47-50760- 800
Grain - Wheat49-50780- 800
Gravel, loose, dry951522
Gravel, with sand, natural1201922
Gravel, dry 1/4 to 2 inch1051682
Gravel, wet 1/4 to 2 inch1252002
Gummite ( uranium ore )2433890 - 6400
Gypsum, solid1742787
Gypsum, broken811290-1600
Gypsum, crushed1001602
Gypsum, pulverized701121
Halite (salt), solid1452323
Halite (salt), broken941506
Hematite ( iron ore )318-3255095 - 5205
Hemimorphite ( zinc ore )212-2183395 - 3490
Hydrochloric acid 40%751201
Ice, solid57919
Ice, crushed37593
Ilmenite1442307
Iridium138322154
Iron ore - crushed 131-1812100-2900
Iron oxide pigment25400
Iron Pyrites1502400
Iron sulphate - pickling tank - dry751200
Iron sulphate - pickling tank - wet811290
Ivory1151842
Kaolin, green crushed641025
Kaolin, pulverized22352
Lead, rolled71111389
Lead, red2303684
Lead, white pigment2554085
Leather59945
Lignite, dry50801
Lime, quick, lump53849
Lime, quick, fine751201
Lime, stone, large1682691
Lime, stone, lump961538
Lime, hydrated30481
Lime, wet or mortar961540
Limonite, solid2373796
Limonite, broken1542467
Limestone, solid1632611
Limestone, broken971554
Limestone, pulverized871394
Linseed, whole47753
Linseed, meal32513
Locust, dry44705
Magnesite, solid1883011
Magnesium oxide1211940
Magnesium sulphate, crystal701121
Magnetite, solid ( iron ore )3155046
Magnetite, broken2053284
Malachite ( copper ore )234-2473750 - 3960
Malt21336
Manganese, solid4757609
Manganese oxide1201922
Manure25400
Marble, solid1602563
Marble, broken981570
Marl, wet, excavated1402243
Mica, solid1802883
Mica, broken1001602
Mica - flake32520
Mica - powder62986
Milk, powdered28449
Molybdenum ore1001600
Mortar, wet1502403
Mud, packed1191906
Mud, fluid1081730
Nickel ore1001600
Nickel, rolled5418666
Nickel silver5278442
Nitric acid, 91%941506
Nitrogen0.0791.26
Oak, red44705
Oats27432
Oats, rolled19304
Oil cake49785
Oil, linseed59942
Oil, petroleum55881
Oxygen0.0891.43
Oyster shells, ground53849
Paper, standard751201
Peanuts, shelled40641
Peanuts, not shelled17272
Peat, dry25400
Peat, moist50801
Peat, wet701121
Pecan wood47753
Phosphate rock, broken1101762
Phosphorus1462339
Pitch721153
Plaster53849
Platinum ore1622600
Porcelain1502403
Porphyry, solid1592547
Porphyry, broken1031650
Potash801281
Potassium chloride1252002
Potatoes, white48769
Pumice, stone40641
Pyrite (fool's gold)1502400 - 5015
Quartz, solid1652643
Quartz, lump971554
Quartz sand751201
Resin, synthetic, crushed35561
Rice, hulled47753
Rice, rough36577
Rice grits43689
Rip-Rap1001602
Rock - soft - excavated with shovel1001600-1780
Rosin671073
Rubber, caoutchouc59945
Rubber, manufactured951522
Rubber, ground scrap30481
Rye44705
Salt cake901442
Salt, course50801
Salt, fine751201
Saltpeter751201
Sand, wet1201922
Sand, wet, packed1302082
Sand, dry1001602
Sand, loose901442
Sand, rammed1051682
Sand, water filled1201922
Sand with Gravel, dry1031650
Sand with Gravel, wet1262020
Sandstone, solid1452323
Sandstone, broken861370-1450
Sawdust13210
Sewage, sludge45721
Shale, solid1672675
Shale, broken991586
Shells - oyster50800
Sinter1001600-2180
Slag, solid1322114
Slag, broken1101762
Slag, crushed, 1/4 inch741185
Slag, furn. granulated60961
Slate, solid1682691
Slate, broken81-911290-1450
Slate, pulverized851362
Smithsonite ( zinc ore )2684300
Snow, freshly fallen10160
Snow, compacted30481
Soap, solid50801
Soap, chips10160
Soap, flakes10160
Soap, powdered23368
Soapstone talc1502400
Soda Ash, heavy671080
Soda Ash, light27432
Sodium61977
Sodium Aluminate, ground721153
Sodium Nitrate, ground751201
Soy beans, whole47753
Starch, powdered35561
Stone, crushed1001602
Stone (common, generic)1572515
Sugar, brown45721
Sugar, powdered50801
Sugar, granulated53849
Sugar, raw cane60961
Sugarbeet pulp, dry13208
Sugarbeet pulp, wet35561
Sugarcane17272
Sulphur, solid1252002
Sulphur, lump821314
Sulphur, pulverized60961
Taconite1752803
Talc, solid1682691
Talc, broken1091746
Tanbark, ground55881
Tankage60961
Tar721153
Tobacco20320
Trap rock, solid1802883
Trap rock, broken1091746
Turf25400
Turpentine54865
Walnut, black, dry38609
Water, pure621000
Water, sea641026
Wheat48769
Wheat, cracked42673
Wood chips - dry 15-32240- 520
Wool821314
Zinc oxide25400

Source : Civil Engineering Society